The Causes of Party Polarization in America Term Paper

The Causes of Party Polarization in America - Term Paper Example Polarization is defined in politics as the process through which public opinions are divided and go to extremes (Baumer and Howard 22). Party polarization is defined as the process through which extreme factions within a political party gain some form of dominance within the party. In such a case, the moderate factions tend to lose influence and power. In recent years, the United States political system has witnessed increased polarization. Party polarization has had consequences in the United States especially with respect to policymaking. Whereas the parties tend to go to the extremes, the public opinion does not really go to the extreme. That notwithstanding, party polarization greatly shape public opinion especially in regard to policy. Party polarization is very evident in both the Congress and the Senate (Ura and Christopher 280). The state of American politics is increasingly colored by partisan polarization: the two major political parties have grown ideologically more unifie d internally and farther apart from each other. As the two parties’ policy preferences diverge further from each other at the elite level, it naturally becomes more difficult for the two to work together. With the shrinking rank of ideological moderates, â€Å"the possibilities of bipartisan negotiation and compromise diminish.† Today the two parties clash with each other more often and more strenuously and vigorously than recent history in Washington and in state capitals. Party-based conflicts, policy stagnation, and paralysis inspired by party competition seem to have become the norm in the early twenty-first century. It is against the above background that it is important to understand party polarization in the United States. To achieve this, this paper will seek to respond to the following questions: What are the roots of partisan polarization? What specific developments in the emergence of the political parties led to party polarization? What are the main contrib uting factors to the re-emergence of party polarization? How is partisan polarization linked to deeper cultural divisions within American society? What have been the policy consequences of partisan polarization for the policy process? Roots of Partisan Polarization Partisan polarization in American politics traces its roots from the period of the Civil War. However, it became more apparent after the attainment of American independence. Over the past century and a half, the American political system has been dominated by two main parties. Third parties that have emerged from that time achieved some measured success, but in the end, they have usually been absorbed by one of the dominant parties (Frymer 336). Partisan polarization has been as a result of ideological differences that can be traced throughout the American political history; it has emanated from the ideological divide of liberalists versus conservatives. It is also important to note that there are other factors apart from the ideology that has been critical in creating partisan polarization; for example, geographical divisions have been so evident as parties have taken the dimensions of the â€Å"Southern† or â€Å"Northern† wings (Pearson 1). While the rapid rise in partisan polarization is relatively recent, the origins of party polarization are not; in fact, much of what we see today can be traced back to the early twentieth century.

A study on the link between abortion and crime Essay Example for Free

A study on the link between abortion and crime Essay Imagine being raised in a home where education wasn’t encouraged. Imagine being truant from elementary school because your parents regularly abused drugs and weren’t there to take you to school. Would you be where you are today? Where do you think you would be? Here’s another question that may seem unrelated. Why did crime drop drastically in the early 1990’s? According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, from its peak in 1991, violent crime fell roughly 34 percent by 2001. The rate of homicide – one of the most studied and arguably the most serious crime there is – fell massively. Over a slightly longer period, homicide rates per capita fell 44%, almost being halved. So we are left with the question, why? Such a massive decrease in crime affects all of us, even if it happened in the 1990’s. If a crime had continued to rise at the same rate, we’d live in a dramatically different world today. Understanding why this happened provides us with a crucial understanding of how the world works. Perhaps the answer lies in one of the biggest and oldest moral dilemmas of modern times.   A paper written by Steven Levitt of the University of Chicago and John Donohue of Yale University titled â€Å"The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime† in 2001 revived the idea that legalized abortion has an effect on reduced crime. The main argument behind it is that after the legalization of abortion took place in 1973, crime fell sharply 18 to 22 years later in the 1992-1995 period. Think about it. Males in the 18-24 age range are those most likely to commit crimes, and 18 to 24 years after abortion was legalized, crime fell drastically. See a connection? While this is a glaring indicator that there is a connection, it is not the only one. States that legalized abortion before Roe v. Wade experienced declines in crime before other states. On top of that, states that had higher abortion rates in the mid-1970’s had steeper declines in crime. These aren’t the only factors that contribute to the Donohue-Levitt hypothesis. Unwanted children, such as those that were born to people denied abortions, are more likely to suffer from neglect and abuse or to be abandoned. These children are more likely to eventually drop out of school, join gangs, and commit crimes or be incarcerated. Bringing a child into a family that is unable or unready to provide for it increases the child’s likelihood to exhibit delinquent behavior. The purpose of studying the link between abortion and crime isn’t to advocate abortion, or to hail it as a crime-fighting tool, but to instead understand trends in crime, and, ultimately, how the world works. In studying this, we can discover why people commit crimes, what affects crime rates, and the effects of abortion on society. The abortion debate is, and always should be, one of the moral values.

Managing Oneself By Peter F Drucker Management Essay

Managing Oneself By Peter F Drucker Management Essay In his article, Managing Oneself, Peter F. Drucker establishes the correlation between success and self-awareness. Success in the knowledge economy comes to those who know themselves, their strengths, their values, and how they best perform. We will be able to achieve results, remain competitive and be successful by knowing our strengths and limitations. Furthermore, by knowing our strengths and limitations, we can position ourselves where we can best contribute and excel within the organization. Drucker suggests a self-assessment using the following questions. What Are My Strengths? Learning more about our strengths can be done through feedback analysis, and also by comparing expectations versus results. Knowing what our strengths are will allow us to maximize our potential in areas in which we can excel, instead of wasting time trying to cultivate skills in areas of little or no proficiencies. Knowing our strengths will let us determine where we belong. How Do I Perform? The way we perform is a matter of personality. Everyone performs differently and how we perform is unique. Recognizing if we are a reader or a listener, as well as, identifying how we learn, can help us find out how we perform. Understanding how we perform is essential to prevent wasting time and effort in trying to change the way we learn and operate. Instead, it is far more advantageous to improve our performance and try not to take on work we cannot perform well or perform at all. What Are My Values? To work in an organization whose value system is unacceptable or incompatible with ones own condemns a person both to frustration and to non-performance. People and organizations have values. In order to perform well or be effective in an organization, both the values of the organization and the individual must be close enough so they can co-exist. Value conflicts can result in frustration and poor or non-performance; therefore, values should be a primary focus in situations in where personal values are not in sync with an organizations. Where Do I Belong? Knowing our strengths, how we perform and our values can help us answer the question, where do we belong. This is important because by knowing where we belong, we can place ourselves where we can make the greatest contributions within the organization. It also can help us to select the tasks and responsibilities in which we are more likely to excel based on what we know about our strengths, performance and values. What Should I Contribute? Or what should my contributions be? Contributions to our organizations should make a difference for the better. Its results should be visible and measurable. In addtion, contributions should be based on our given strengths, performance and values, and follow a course of action: what to do, where and how to start, and what goals and deadlines to set. Managing oneself requires a high degree of self control, self awareness and social skills. Since we are all part of society, we all should be aware of our relationship responsibilities. This is recognizing that an organizations composition includes people with different values, strengths and performance levels, knowing them will help us work better with others and accomplish more. With regard to relationship responsibilities, it is also important to take responsibility for communication. Effective communication helps to build consensus, increasing efficiency and building trust. Through effective communication, we can learn and understand members of our organizations to ensure we are in sync to achieve our goals and provide our greatest contributions to our firms and society. What Leaders Really Do By John P. Kotter In his article, What Leaders Really Do, Kotter establishes the difference between managing and leading. The key distinction he makes is that management involves coping with complexity and leadership has to do with coping with change. Good management brings a degree of order and consistency to key dimensions like the quality and profitability of products. According to Kotter, managers promote stability while leaders press for change, and only organizations that embrace both sides of that contradiction can thrive in turbulent times. Although there are clear differences between managing and leadership, effective leadership cannot be achieved without good management. Management has to do with objectives and results. It does require planning, organizing, leading and controlling. An effective manager will find or will administer the necessary technical and human resources to get things done effectively; this is, with the lowest cost and in the fastest time. Leadership, in contrast, has to do with the social aspect of managing. In our organizations, leaders set up the direction and vision. A manager will make sure to plan accordingly and direct the necessary resources to follow the direction or vision of our leaders in their organization. Kotter also lists the following as activities that leaders dont do; They dont make plans, they dont solve problems, they dont even organize people. What leaders really do is prepare organizations for change and help them cope as they struggle through it. Leaders inspire change and prepare organizations to manage change. However, based on my work experience, I disagree with the author on the idea that leaders dont plan, solve problems or that they dont organize One can argue that a leader may not has the same level of involvement as a middle manager or supervisor in performing these activities; however effective leaders do have to make plans, resolve problems and organize even move people. The degree of contribution of a leader carrying out these actions will depend on the type of leader they are, the situation they are in and organization they are leading. Another idea that is presented in this article is that leadership has nothing to do with having charisma or other exotic personal ity traits. Although it is true that being charismatic is not a requirement to be a leader, it has been demonstrated by many studies and theories that a charismatic leader has a positive effect on their followers. People want to be led by these individuals They inspire and motivate, which in turn makes it easier for a leader to effectively influence others to act or change and work toward achieving the leaders vision. After all, this is the very essence of effective leadership, to inspire and influence others to act and change. What makes a leader? By Daniel Goleman The term emotional intelligence was introduced by Daniel Goleman in 1995. In his research at nearly 200 large global companies, he found that in addition to intellectual abilities and technical skills, effective leaders are alike in having a high degree of emotional intelligence. The five components of emotional intelligence are: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. The first three components of emotional intelligence are self-management skills, the last two have to do with the persons ability to manage relationships with others. Why emotional intelligence is so important for leaders? Self-Awareness and Self-Regulation: The ability to recognize, understand and control our emotions plays an important role in decision making in business. People who know how their feelings and impulses affect them and affect others, can make better decisions and can adapt to changes more easily. Motivation: Effective leaders are driven to achieve. Their passion goes beyond money and status. Motivation ensures organizational commitment and plays a role in the levels of optimism within the organization. Empathy: Carefully consider employees feelings along with other factors in decision making. People feel better when they are led by someone who cares and understands them. Empathy impacts productivity and effectiveness in team work and in retaining talent. Social Skills: Knowing that in business, as well as, in many other professional fields, nothing important is accomplished individually. Using effective interpersonal skills and networking allows leaders to effectively get the job done through others. In the organizations in which I have been a member of, emotional intelligence has made the difference between effective and ineffective leaders. On many occasions, high technical and intellectual skills of managers have not been enough to make them effective in their efforts to lead teams or the organization in general. In contrast, managers and CEOs who seem to know themselves well, understand and control their emotions, seem to project their positive attitude and approach onto other members of the organization. They can see the bigger picture in situations of conflict or problems. They remain in control, not allowing their feelings or emotions to interfere with their decision making process, and come up with creative solutions that others within the organization were unable to see (perhaps because they let their feelings and negative thoughts get in the way). They remain optimistic and can efficiently motivate others even in situations when the odds for success seem against them. T hey also show empathy and genuinely care about others; many of them are involved in activities or programs that help their communities or are mentors for their employees. There is consensus in the way they are perceived. Everyone agrees they are people persons with a natural ability to maintain and build relationships in and outside the organization. More than relationships, they establish bonds, partnerships and networks that help to influence to get the job done effectively. More importantly, they seem to always look for the upside or positive side of an issue and make people feel good about being part of the organization, which has a direct effect on productivity and success. They lead by example and treat everyone with respect. For me, these traits and abilities represent what emotional intelligence is and they are as important as technical and intellectual skills in order to lead effectively. Mastering the components of emotional intelligence can make the difference in the effe ctiveness of a leader. What Every Leader Needs to Know About Followers By Barbara Kellerman There is no leader without follower(s). The relationship leader-follower can be described as interdependent. They need each other to exist, and they impact each others actions and behaviors. Many of us share the perception that a follower is someone who willing accepts anothers ideas, vision or assignments, sometimes unconditionally or without questioning the purpose or reason their leader has. Historically, because leaders were in positions of power or authority, followers simply acted as compliant subordinates. According to Barbara Kellerman in her Harvard Business Review article, What Every Leader Needs to Know About Followers, the relationship leaders-followers has changed. A confluence of changes- cultural and technological ones in particular- have influenced what subordinates want and how they behave, especially in relation to their ostensible bosses. The advances in technology and globalization have resulted in less usable power for leaders. Followers now have access to inform ation and tools that were not available to them in the past. The trend in todays business environment is that followers think of themselves and act more as free agents by not being totally dependent on or submissive to their leaders ideas or objectives. More often than not, followers now can challenge leaders decision. For this reason, leaders are now more careful in the way they treat their followers. They are aware that their actions may be subject to scrutiny, not only by their followers, but also by their organization and the society as a whole. Additionally, because power is now shared in most modern organizations, leaders look for followers feedback and support. At the same time, followers can impact a leaders behavior. For example, they can withhold support from a bad leader and support good ones, or organize themselves to pursue an objective that challenges or blocks their leaders action. Just as there are different types of leaders, there are different types of followers. In general, having high technical skills, knowledge and emotional intelligence are associated with being a good leader. Leaders and followers have similar traits or characteristics; their differences are related to their behaviors and roles. In my personal experience, good followers challenge their leaders. With their knowledge and use of available information, they invest time in making judgments about their leaders. They also contribute to a cause or organization with their engagement and passion. Good followers also actively support a leader who is effective and ethical, and will actively oppose an ineffective or unethical lerader. Good leaders are essential for successful businesses. At the same time, good followers have a direct impact on strengthening their leaders actions through their support or weakening their leaders to their lack thereof.

Erythroxylum: The Coca Plant :: Botany

Erythroxylum: The Coca Plant The coca plant is a member of the order Geraniales and the family Erythroxylaceae. There are four genera with an estimated 200 species in Erythroxylaceae (De Witt, 1967). Coca was first described as Erythroxylum by A.L. Jussieu in 1783. It was given the binomial Erythroxylum coca by Lamarck in 1786. Early botanists believed that all coca plants were of the same species. Later researchers found that two species of domesticated coca existed. These are Erythroxylum coca Lam. and Erythroxylum novogranatense (Morris) Hieron (Rury and Plowman, 1983). The two species have two varieties, Erythroxylum coca Lam. var. coca, E. coca var. Ipuda Plowman, E. novogranatense (Morris) Hieron var. novogranatense, and E. novogranatense var. truxillense (Rusby) Plowman (Plowman, 1983). Distribution Coca is grown in South America, Africa, Ceylon, Taiwan, Indonesia and Formosa (De Witt, 1967). Coca is most commonly associated with its center of origin, the South American Montana zone of the eastern Andes below 2000m (Bray & Dollery, 198:3). According to Rury and Plowman (1983) E. coca var. Coca, Huanuco or Bolivian coca is the ancestral variety. Bolivian coca grows in the moist tropical forests of the eastern Andes of Peru and Bolivia. This variety is the only one of the four found growing wild. Bolivian coca is the major source of commercially produced coca leaves and cocaine. Amazon coca, E. coca var. ipuda is cultivated in the lowland Amazon. It has been suggested that this variety is a lowland cultigen of Bolivian coca. In contrast to Bolivian coca it is not found growing wild (Rury and Plowman, 1993). E. novogranatense var. truxillense or Trujillo coca is a hardy, drought resistant variety. It is found growing in river valleys of coastal Peru and other arid areas of this region. Bohm, Ganders & Plowman (1982) state that this variety displays many characteristics that are intermediate between E. coca var. coca and E. novogranatense var. novogranatense, and may represent an evolutionary stage between these species. E. novogranatense var. novogranatense or Colombian coca is cultivated in both moist and dry areas in the Colombian mountains. It is also drought tolerant and is not found growing outside Cultivation. Evidence shows that this variety maybe the most evolved species (Rury & Plowman, 1983). Cultivation Coca plants are small evergreen shrubs with reddish brown bark. They have many small branchlets with elliptical-obovate opposite leaves measuring 4-7 cm. in length and 3-4 cm.

To Kill a Mockingbird Analysis

Themes play an important role in the novel for it presents the main dead or the underlying meaning of the literary work. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the themes are made to surface through the shared feelings and attitudes of the main characters like Scout, Gem and Tactics Finch. The characters' thoughts and conversations, especially the ideas which are repeated in several dialogue exchanges and their actions in significant events also develop the novel's themes. The novel presents the oldest yet timeless conflict between good versus evil.This is evident in most situations and conversations which explored human morality and the innateness of oddness and evilness of people in the society. Tactics Finch represents the moral voice of the novel because he believes that people have aspects of both good and evil, but good will always prevail. He has never lost his faith on the goodness of man amidst the fact that man has also the tendency to do bad things. In the novel, he struggles to defend a black man of false accusation in a racist society but he never gives up and firmly holds on unto the idea that someday the truth and the good will overpower racism in their community.The same theme is manifested through the experiences of Scout and Gem. Tactics, their father, teaches them to believe in the goodness of all people and values and morals guide everyone in their actions but as the story progresses, both children are exposed to the reality that the world isn't really that perfect. Their innocence is stripped away from them through several incidents that made them think twice of their father's belief.Scout, in the beginning, is an innocent and good -hearted little girl who has no experience with the evils of the world but as she encounters racial discrimination in their town, she starts to get confused and questions everything around her. Gem, n the other hand, is older and in the midst Of entering puberty but the effect of the societal prejudice to a convicted black ma n is much graver compared to Scout's. Gem gets frustrated and disappointed to the harsh reality that sometimes justices will not prevail. This leaves him vulnerable and traumatized in an important facet of his life.Harper Lee manages to exhibit children's transition from innocence to maturity. She intelligently portrayed the fact that at some point in time in a significant event, children will be bound to graduate from their innocence and learn the facts about life and its imperfections. With children as the main characters in the novel, education is but obvious for a theme. In the initial chapters, the novel discusses the difference between institutionalized education and education at home. A conflict emerges as Miss Caroline scolds her for being too advance for their class.Scout gets disappointed for being punished because she is taught well in home by her father and their black servant. Miss Caroline even reminds Scout to tell her father that he shouldn't teach his child because he doesn't really know how to. He is in no position to teach for he is not a teacher. This conflict shows criticism to institutionalized education. This presents the conceitedness of teachers and the curriculum in providing education to learners. The system is too strict and traditional in their pedagogies thus resulting to ineffectiveness in developing and molding a child's intelligence and ability.Clearly, Lee expresses a lack of belief in the Institutionalized educational system. Furthermore, this makes one realize that true education is not experienced in school but outside it. Education shouldn't be limited in the four walls of the classroom; instead it should be brought out to the outside world where reality and life lessons are best learned through experience. The novel also presents moral education in question. Scout believes that she learns moral lessons best in home rather in school. Her teachers appear to be hypocritical as they teach things that are not even true in real ity.Scout notices this most obviously when learning about the Holocaust. Miss Gates explains that such oppression of one group of people could never happen in the United States however racial discrimination to black people is very evident in their town. Scout sees conflict with the lesson aught by Miss Gates when she heard her talk about black people and say : â€Å"time somebody taught them a lesson, they thought they was getting' way above themselves, an' the next thing they think they can do is marry us. This makes Scout doubt her education and rather listen to her father than to attend school. Hypocrisy is apparent in the system. The teachers breach what they teach thus emphasizing the incompetence and ineffectiveness of instruction provided by the educational institutions. This further implies that moral education and good values are not necessary best taught in school. Sometimes, it is best learned from other places like ones home. In a town of Macomb, Alabama, Lee illustrate s the complexities of social hierarchy.The well-off Finches are near the top of the pyramid, the Cunningham family are mere farmers thus Stay in the higher bottom above the white-trash Lowell family. These social statuses greatly confuse the children especially the rules that come along with them. Because of the structure, the children are prop bibbed to mingle with other families who are lesser in standing. This frustrates them most especially Scout because she ants to choose her own friends based on her definition of what makes a good person and not because of family income.The novel presents the dilemma of social inequality. The story takes place during the Great Depression thus social standing is as important as survival. People battle with society rules and structure. Lee exhibits how injustice and partiality divides a community and hinders human interaction thus contributing nothing but negativity to the people and the society as a whole. Racism, which is closely related to so cial inequality, is another focus of the novel. Harper Lee creates Macomb as a town separated by race.Harper Lee shows the bitterness that remains in the whites five decades after the end of slavery. This bitterness is best illustrated by the way that the way blacks are still oppressed, not by force but by fear and suppression. California, the Finch's servant is to be exceptionally bright, she even teaches Scout to write in script, but because she is black and a woman she cannot land a better job. The whites belittle and harass the blacks because they firmly believe that they are greater and more superior. This racial tension foreshadows Tom Robinsons case.Right in the beginning, everybody knows that Tom is innocent but because he is a black man, the prejudice jury still convicted him guilty of harassing and raping a white woman. The conclusion of the Tom Robinsons case ends with Tom being shot repeatedly while trying to escape despite his injury. Racism is considered as a social di sease. It brings out the evil nature of man as prejudice and discrimination overpowers conscience and moral code. It is through this novel that people are made to understand how nobody can ever benefit from racism.It only causes the creation of walls teen people thus hindering relationships and interactions to blossom. Lee shows the significance of human perspective in the processing of events and solving of problems. The character's outlook in life is deemed important in the development of the story and how each managed to understand the situation. In the novel, Tactics encourages Scout and Gem to be more considerate of other people and understand their situations. The children shouldn't immediately judge as it is not fair to the others.Tactics urges his children to try to step into other people's shoes to understand how they see he world: â€Å"You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view . Until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. † This lesson helps Scout gain insight into how other people view life and the world. Moreover, this broadens her moral education and social understanding. This theme was evident when Tactics requires Gem to go to Mrs.. Double's house to read to her as punishment for cutting all the flowers in her front yard.Gem didn't like Mrs.. Dubos and claims that she is an awful woman. Tactics tells Gem and Scout to try to understand Mrs.. Double's point of view. She is an old woman, very set her in ways, and she is entirely alone in the world. Gem and Scout agree to visit her and from that experience, they understood how she felt because they were able to see the world from her perspective. Scout applies her father's lesson when she meets Boo Raddled, a black man who kept himself hidden from the public because of the unjust and prejudice treatment.After she walks him home, Scout stands on Boob's porch and imagines many of the events of the story (Tactics shooting the mad dog the chil dren finding Boob's presents in the oak tree) as they must have looked to Boo. She then last realizes the love and protection that he has silently offered her and Gem all along. Scout's ability to assume another person's perspective sympathetically is the culmination of the novel. The final theme and probably the most significant is the mockingbird which represents the idea of innocence. Remember it's a sin to kill a mockingbird. † That was the only time I ever heard Tactics say it was a sin to do something, and I asked Miss Maude about it. â€Å"Your father's right,† she said. â€Å"Mockingbirds don't do one thing but make music for us to enjoy .. .But sing their hearts out for us. That's why it's a sin to kill a mockingbird. † When Scout and Gem receive arraigns for Christmas, Tactics tells them that although he would prefer that they practice their shooting with tin cans, if they must shoot at living things, they must never shoot at mockingbirds.Tactics explai ns that it is a sin to kill a mockingbird. Clearly, this is the title scene, but the theme continues throughout the book. Miss Maude explains why Tactics is correct – mockingbirds never do anyone any harm, and are not pests in any way. All they do is sing beautifully and live peacefully. Therefore, it is a sin to kill them. The mockingbird represents true goodness and purity. Tom Robinson is one example of a human â€Å"mockingbird†. He is accused of raping and beating Malay Lowell, but is innocent of the charges.

Definition and Examples of Rhetorical Questions

Definition and Examples of Rhetorical Questions A rhetorical question is a  question (such as How could I be so stupid?) thats asked merely for effect with no answer expected. The answer may be obvious or immediately provided by the questioner. Also known as  erotesis, erotema, interrogatio, questioner, and reversed polarity question (RPQ). A rhetorical question can be an effective persuasive device, subtly influencing the kind of response one wants to get from an audience (Edward P.J. Corbett). See Examples and Observations, below. In English, rhetorical questions are commonly used in speech and in informal kinds of writing (such as advertisements). Rhetorical questions appear less frequently in academic discourse. Types of Rhetorical Questions Anthypophora and HypophoraEpiplexisErotesis Examples and Observations Something [rhetorical] questions all have in common . . . is that they are not asked, and are not understood, as ordinary information-seeking questions, but as making some kind of claim, or assertion, an assertion of the opposite polarity to that of the question.(Irene Koshik, Beyond Rhetorical Questions. John Benjamins, 2005)Marriage is a wonderful institution, but who would want to live in an institution?(H. L. Mencken)It did not occur to me to call a doctor, because I knew none, and although it did occur to me to call the desk and ask that the air conditioner be turned off, I never called, because I did not know how much to tip whoever might come- was anyone ever so young?(Joan Didion, Goodbye to All That. Slouching Towards Bethlehem, 1968)The means are at hand to fulfill the age-old dream: poverty can be abolished. How long shall we ignore this under-developed nation in our midst? How long shall we look the other way while our fellow human beings suffer? How long(Michael Harringt on, The Other America: Poverty in the United States, 1962) Must I argue the wrongfulness of slavery? Is that a question for republicans? Is it to be settled by the rules of logic and argumentation, as a matter beset with great difficulty, involving a doubtful application of the principle of justice, hard to understand?(Frederick Douglass, What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? July 5, 1852)Hath not a Jew eyes?Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions?If you prick us, do we not bleed, if you tickle us, do we not laugh?If you poison us, do we not die?(Shylock in William Shakespeares Merchant of Venice)Can I ask a rhetorical question? Well, can I?(Ambrose Bierce)Arent you glad you use Dial?Dont you wish everybody did?(1960s television advertisement for Dial soap)To actually see inside your ear canalit would be fascinating, wouldnt it?(Letter from Sonus, a hearing-aid company, quoted in Rhetorical Questions Wed Rather Not Answer. The New Yorker, March 24, 2003)If practice makes perfect, and no ones perfect, then wh y practice?(Billy Corgan) Isnt it a bit unnerving that doctors call what they do practice?(George Carlin)Am I alone in thinking it odd that a people ingenious enough to invent paper, gunpowder, kites, and any number of other useful objects, and who have a noble history extending back three thousand years, havent yet worked out that a pair of knitting needles is no way to capture food?(Bill Bryson, Notes From a Small Island. Doubleday, 1995)The Indians [in the Oliver Stone movie The Doors] serve the same function they did in Dances With Wolves: they make the far more highly paid white movie actors seem soulful and important and in touch with ancient truths. Do Indians enjoy being used this way, as spiritual elves or cosmic merit badges?(Libby Gelman-Waxner [Paul Rudnick], Sex, Drugs, and Extra-Strength Excedrin. If You Ask Me, 1994)Rhetorical Questions in Shakespeares Julius CaesarRhetorical questions are those so worded that one and only one answer can be generally expected from the audience you are addressin g. In this sense, they are like the unmentioned premises in abbreviated reasoning, which can go unmentioned because they can be taken for granted as generally acknowledged.Thus, for example, Brutus asks the citizens of Rome: Who is here so base that would be a bondman? adding at once: If any, speak, for him have I offended. Again Brutus asks: Who is here so vile that will not love his country? Let him also speak, for him I have offended. Brutus dares to ask these rhetorical questions, knowing full well that no one will answer his rhetorical questions in the wrong way.So, too, Marc Antony, after describing how Caesars conquests filled Romes coffers, asks: Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? And after reminding the populace that Caesar thrice refused the crown that was offered him, Antony asks: Was this ambition? Both are rhetorical questions to which one and only one answer can be expected.(Mortimer Adler, How to Speak How to Listen. Simon Schuster, 1983) Are Rhetorical Questions Persuasive?By arousing curiosity, rhetorical questions motivate people to try to answer the question that is posed. Consequently, people pay closer attention to information relevant to the rhetorical question. . . .At this point, I think it is important to note that the fundamental problem in the study of rhetorical questions is the lack of focus on the persuasive effectiveness of different types of rhetorical questions. Clearly, an ironical rhetorical question is going to have a different effect on an audience than an agreement rhetorical question. Unfortunately, little research has been conducted on how different types of rhetorical questions operate in a persuasive context.(David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen, What Is the Role of Rhetorical Questions in Persuasion? Communication and Emotion: Essays in Honor of Dolf Zillmann, ed. by Jennings Bryant et al. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)Punctuating Rhetorical QuestionsFrom time to time, people become dissatisfied with the broa d application of the question mark and try to narrow it down, usually by proposing distinct marks for the different kinds of question. Rhetorical questions have attracted  particular attention, as- not requiring any answer- they are so different in kind. An Elizabethan printer, Henry Denham, was an early advocate, proposing in the 1580s a reverse question mark  (ØŸ) for this function, which came to be called a percontation mark (from a Latin word meaning a questioning act). Easy enough to handwrite, some late 16th century authors did sporadically use it, such as Robert Herrick. . . . But printers were unimpressed, and the mark never became standard. However, it has received a new lease of life online . . ..(David Crystal, Making a Point:  The Persnickety Story of English Punctuation. St. Martins Press, 2015) The Lighter Side of Rhetorical QuestionsHoward: We need to ask you a question.Professor Crawley: Really? Let me ask you a question. What does an accomplished entomologist with a doctorate and twenty years of experience do when the university cuts all his funding?Rajesh: Ask uncomfortable rhetorical questions to people?(Simon Helberg, Lewis Black, and Kunal Nayyar in The Jiminy Conjecture. The Big Bang Theory, 2008)Penny: Sheldon, have you any idea what time it is?Sheldon: Of course I do. My watch is linked to the atomic clock in Boulder, Colorado. Its accurate to one-tenth of a second. But as Im saying this, it occurs to me that you may have again been asking a rhetorical question.(Kaley Cuoco and Jim Parsons in The Loobenfeld Decay. The Big Bang Theory, 2008)Dr. Cameron: Why did you hire me?Dr. House: Does it matter?Dr. Cameron: Kind of hard to work for a guy who doesnt respect you.Dr. House: Why?Dr. Cameron: Is that rhetorical?Dr. House: No, it just seems that way because you cant think of an answer.(House, M.D.)I forget, which day did God create all the fossils?(An anti-creationism bumper sticker, cited by Jack Bowen in If You Can Read This: The Philosophy of Bumper Stickers. Random House, 2010)Grandma Simpson and Lisa are singing Bob Dylans Blowin in the Wind (How many roads must a man walk down/Before you call him a man?). Homer overhears and says, Eight!Lisa: That was a rhetorical question!Homer: Oh. Then, seven!Lisa: Do you even know what rhetorical means?Homer: Do I know what rhetorical means?(The Simpsons, When Grandma Simpson Returns) Pronunciation: ri-TOR-i-kal KWEST-shun

Gases - General Properties of Gases

Gases - General Properties of Gases A gas is a form of matter that lacks a defined shape or volume. Gases share important properties, plus there are equations you can use to calculate what will happen to the pressure, temperature, or volume of a gas if conditions are changed. Gas Properties There are three gas properties that characterize this state of matter: Compressibility - Gases are easy to compress.Expandability - Gases expand to completely fill their containers.Because particles are less ordered than in liquids or solids, the gas form of the same substance occupies much more space.   All pure substances display similar behavior in the gas phase. At 0 ° C and 1 atmosphere of pressure, one mole of every gas occupies about 22.4 liters of volume. Molar volumes of solids and liquids, on the other hand, vary greatly from one substance to another. In a gas at 1 atmosphere, the molecules are approximately 10 diameters apart. Unlike liquids or solids, gases occupy their containers uniformly and completely. Because molecules in a gas are far apart, it is easier to compress a gas than it is to compress a liquid. In general, doubling the pressure of a gas reduces its volume to about half of its previous value. Doubling the mass of gas in a closed container doubles its pressure. Increasing the temperature of a gas enclosed in a container increases its pressure. Important Gas Laws Because different gases act similarly, it is possible to write a single equation relating volume, pressure, temperature, and quantity of gas. This Ideal Gas Law and the related Boyles Law, Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac, and Daltons Law are central to understanding the more complex behavior of real gases. Ideal Gas Law: The ideal gas law relates the pressure, volume, quantity, and temperature of an ideal gas. The law applies to real gases at normal temperature and low pressure. PV nRTBoyles Law: At constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. PV k1Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac: These two ideal gas laws are related.  Charless law states at constant pressure, the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to temperature.  Gay-Lussacs law says at constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature. V k2T (Charless Law), Pi/Ti   Pf/Tf (Gay-Lussacs Law)Daltons Law: Daltons law is used to find pressures of individual gases in a gaseous mixture. Ptot Pa Pbwhere:P is pressure, Ptot is total pressure, Pa and Pb are component pressuresV is volumen is a  number of molesT is temperaturek1 and k2 are constants

Free Essays on Population And Urbanization

Population and Urbanization Population is the number of individuals living in a certain area in a certain time which is the target group to be studied. Whereas, Urbanization is the process in which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities which is totally influenced by the culture. Both Population and Urbanization are related terms and are the global issue of study right now. The term Demography helps to understand it clearly which is the study of size, composition, growth and distribution of population. The world population of human being is increasing rapidly in geometrically ratio and the food supply is increasing arithmetically, which is explained by the Malthus theorem. Let us consider some facts about population growth. It took all of recorded history until 1830 for world population to reach one billion; by 1930 we were at two billion; by 1960, three billion; 1975, four billion; 1986, five billion; and in 1999 we crossed the six billion mark. The world population grew at an annual rate of 1.4% between 1990 and 2000. The least industrialized nations are growing about 16 times faster than industrialized nations, which is 1.6% a year compared to 0.1%. This is critical condition which shows the population is mushrooming in least industrialized Nations, and hardly growing in at all in most industrialized nations. The population of least industrialized nations is increasing because of illiteracy, children are viewed as gifts from God, they cost little to rear, and also they represent the parent social security. The food for each individual is higher than it was before like around 1950s, because of improved variety of seed and fertilizers for agriculture. There is ample amount of food for the world’s growing population for next 30 years, so the main issues arises here why people are dying of starvation, which is paradox for all of us! The main reason for this is drought, civil war and unequal distribution of food... Free Essays on Population And Urbanization Free Essays on Population And Urbanization Population and Urbanization Population is the number of individuals living in a certain area in a certain time which is the target group to be studied. Whereas, Urbanization is the process in which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities which is totally influenced by the culture. Both Population and Urbanization are related terms and are the global issue of study right now. The term Demography helps to understand it clearly which is the study of size, composition, growth and distribution of population. The world population of human being is increasing rapidly in geometrically ratio and the food supply is increasing arithmetically, which is explained by the Malthus theorem. Let us consider some facts about population growth. It took all of recorded history until 1830 for world population to reach one billion; by 1930 we were at two billion; by 1960, three billion; 1975, four billion; 1986, five billion; and in 1999 we crossed the six billion mark. The world population grew at an annual rate of 1.4% between 1990 and 2000. The least industrialized nations are growing about 16 times faster than industrialized nations, which is 1.6% a year compared to 0.1%. This is critical condition which shows the population is mushrooming in least industrialized Nations, and hardly growing in at all in most industrialized nations. The population of least industrialized nations is increasing because of illiteracy, children are viewed as gifts from God, they cost little to rear, and also they represent the parent social security. The food for each individual is higher than it was before like around 1950s, because of improved variety of seed and fertilizers for agriculture. There is ample amount of food for the world’s growing population for next 30 years, so the main issues arises here why people are dying of starvation, which is paradox for all of us! The main reason for this is drought, civil war and unequal distribution of food...

Concept of human rights and its role in the legal,moral and political Outline

Concept of human rights and its role in the legal,moral and political world - Outline Example Much more job is required to inject human rights and the voice of the migrants into the mainstream of making policy in this area. â€Å"The wider vision of human rights allows for consideration of the problems of hunger, poverty, and violence facing billions of people† (Clapham 2007). In their human rights vision, persons are endowed, by cause of their humankind, with certain basic and unchallengeable rights. Idea of human rights offer the vocabulary for arguing regarding which interests must prevail and how best to accomplish the ends we have selected. Human Rights dealing with contempt subjects on occasion have to balance the competing interests and benefits of the constitutional right to a fair trial and the require to protect. The aspect of human rights to privacy and confidentiality, or the need to be left to oneself, is inherent to every human being. This is more apparent in the areas of hospitalization, medical care and defense of patient records. It is proposed to first think the aspect governing Human Rights Act regarding attaining consent of the patients in medical study settings previous to accepting them for bio-medical or medical research use. â€Å"So far we have resisted the temptation to claim that human rights are about balancing individual free doms and the collective interests of the community. Such claims say very little about these rights as they melt away into the interests of the majority to live in peace and security† (Clapham 2007). The push of worldwide human rights rule is that curtailment of rights should be vindicated by reference to pre-existing rules that permit for proportionate action essential to accomplish a legitimate aim. It is seen from the theories and cases discussed above that public view is significant aspect which wants to be accepted by citizens, celebrities or otherwise. At the same time as a certain amount of accommodation and restraint wants to be offered to citizens in terms of human rights and respect for

Global economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Global economy - Essay Example These opportunities are found in major developing countries like India and China, where a large population results in excess of labor demand over supply; leading to comparatively cheap skilled and unskilled labor being available (Dominguez, pp. 5, 2005). At a superficial glance, when a multinational invests in a country overseas, the partnership seems beneficial. Both the parties seem to profit. The multinational company finds a new domain to practice business on, while the country involved benefits due to the creation of jobs in its economy as well as the expansion in the consumer market due to the addition of the MNC’s product. There is however, a more deep-rooted impact of this operation, which implies increased benefit for the MNC and less benefit for the developing country. The nation state, which allows the multinational to operate within its borders, seldom sees the profit from the company’s operations (Chen, pp. 136, 2003). Multinational company, upon earning th is profit, will whisk the profit out of the country to its own origin and home. Resultantly, even when million-dollar companies enter a developing country’s market, the million-dollar profit is not beneficial to the country itself in any way. If evaluated by the subjective eye, the situation can appear as if the MNC exploits the hosting country for its cheap labor and consumer market, while paying back only the bare minimum in the form of wages, while earning a massive profit as well as a beneficial expansion in operations. The operations of a multinational consist of combining the expertise (especially new technology) and the stock capital of the multinational with any opportunities the MNC may find in other countries in the form of cheap labor and other resources, leading to an increased output (Toyne, pp. 42, 2009). The result is often a substantial profit that the investors in the multinational divide amongst themselves and take home. While arguments both favor and oppose this distribution to solely the owners, the unbiased spectator has to admit that there is no legal ground upon which one can object to this distribution. The question that follows is that is there no way out of this redundant cycle for the developing countries? Will they continue to serve the multinationals with their cheap labor without ever seeing a reasonable share of the end profit? To answer this question, one has to evaluate the situation objectively. Since only the investors of a business are entitled to profits, the only way a nation state can fairly demand a share of the profit is by being one of the risk takers of the business. Investors in the MNC who belong to the hosting country share the profit of the company, and it is their decision whether to keep their share within the country, or to send it elsewhere (Nagle, pp. 104, 1998). If the nation state makes investment attractive for these stakeholders, they are tempted to keep the profits within the country to invest. Th is is often not the case in developing countries, where the government policies underestimate the importance of investment. In a country where the government policies promote investment using fiscal and monetary rewards, the country’s economy gains much more benefit through the operations of multinationals. Not only does investment from several sources increase, MNC operations in the country have a two-fold favorable impact

Qualitative General Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Qualitative General Depression - Essay Example The purpose of our study was to investigate adolescent’s experiences with depression: how depression affected their relationship, their academic performance, their behavior with family members as well as treatment they have received. A comparison was then made on how qualitative study investigates the experience of depression compared to quantitative study in the following aspects. Data collection This survey involved Semi structured interviews of fifteen young adults who had been diagnosed with and treated for the major depression disorder between the ages of 15-19. When collecting data, two approaches were used: qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative approach on the experience of depression applied more easily than qualitative research. It involved sampling the fifteen teenagers and the interview was audio taped for further reference. When collecting this data, the findings were summarized as follows: all the fifteen adolescents experienced significant factors i n their family concurrent with the time of their first episode e.g. hatred and been neglected, all the fifteen adolescents were not involved in planning or even involved in treatment during their hospitalization, depression caused these teenagers’ broken relationships and traditional school setting did not help the teenagers in dealing with depression hence the great impact. Data collected in quantitative research was hard and numerical. ... It can also be used in studying human behavior and the social world which is inhabited by human beings. Qualitative research helps us to adequately answer the question why? E.g. why things are the way they are in our social world. For example in our study, we were able to answer the question why depression has caused many broken relationships between these teenagers. The answer was that, the public as well as the private schools did not help these participants to recognize or even manage their depression. They were not even involved in planning nor were they kept involved of their treatment during their hospitalization hence this had a great impact on their relationships. Qualitative data collection describes tests and examines cause and effect relationship e.g. it shows a relationship between depression and family systems. Data collected shows us that there has been a dying relationship between the family members and the depressed adolescent as a result of behaviors’ which ar e associated with depression e.g. smoking. Quantitative methods of data collection produce legitimate scientific answers and this can be seen as hard data. On the other hand, qualitative data collection produce soft data, which is seen as inadequate in providing answers and in trying to generate any, change (Strauss, & Corbin, 2000) Sample recruitment When sampling, the sampling procedures in each case are complex hence must meet the criteria of the data collection strategy. A sample in both qualitative and quantitative approaches is required which is a representative of the large group. We sampled the fifteen teenagers and this was a representative of the large population of the depressed adolescents in most of our societies today. Sampling in this case is recommended since it becomes

Reflective Journals on real ear measurment and prescription rules Essay

Reflective Journals on real ear measurment and prescription rules - Essay Example But patient response/opinion should also be in parallel with that of the audiologist in order to reach target. A cooperative patient will of course yield successful results whilst a patient in denial will not. A good fit is an important benefit to patients and that the use of REM recognizes the differences between coupler and real-ear measurements. In addition, patient benefit is greater when the target is well-matched. The baseline measure is useful when the patient will want to change aid later on. REM also shows the effects of fine tuning and provides graphical confirmation to the audiologist that the intended prescription/processing strategy have been implemented by the hearing aid software. Real ear measurement ensures the audiologist will be able to understand the whole process. REM is also helpful during counselling of patient and their family members about what they can and cannot hear. It will verify the function of advanced features like directional microphone and even nois e reduction features. Therefore, the audiologist should be adept about REM. During the lectures and readings, I also learned considerations for adults and children patients due to different approaches to real ear measurement. It was suggested that normal hearing in infants are uncertain (Ching et al, 2001). There are also acoustical differences between the ear canals of children and adults that affect the audiometric data as well as the hearing aid amplification. The audiologist should be aware of this when faced with a child or adult patient. To minimize or eliminate mistakes in prescribing amplification, the audiologist should base thresholds in sound pressure level at the tympanic membrane. Measurement errors are seen to be fewer for adults, especially those with average ear canal size and resonance. Children are also more restless during probe tube

Tanzanie Experiment Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tanzanie Experiment Paper - Essay Example While some people argue that the curriculum should allow use of Kiswahili in secondary school, the policy makers argue that students should learn English to be able to participate globally. This paper explains how to set up a randomized control trial to obtain a solution for the challenge. 2. How to set up a randomized control trial in Tanzania. Deciding which language to be used for learning would be the most appropriate solution for the learning challenge in Tanzania. The criteria to decide on the most appropriate language would include ensuring that the language used for learning in school increase the students ability to learn and achieve global competitiveness. Tanzania, which is a former protectorate of British, has adopted English. English language is widely used in the globe while Kiswahili is a local language. Moreover, students can utilize books written by diverse authors across the globe without requiring a translation from English into Kiswahili. Selecting English as a le arning language in primary school would enable students to be empowered using English for communication, encourage a positive attitude in learning and familiarize students with basic expressions. There are two possible outcomes of the randomized controlled trial. Use of English as a learning language in primary school may improve the performance of student in secondary school. ... will ensure that the subjects of study will involve two clusters where one will receive early intervention of English language while the other cluster will use Kiswahili to learn in primary school. A follow up on the eligible or recruited subjects will be done to compare the outcomes. Jadad and Enkin (12) mention that randomized controlled trial reduces bias by selecting the subjects randomly. The trial will provide answers on weather introduction of English for learning in primary school would enable students increase their learning abilities in secondary school. The subjects will be randomly selected from different schools to include private and public schools in rural and urban setting. Classes of thirty to sixty students in two hundred and seventy schools will be randomly selected. Students will be introduced to English language for learning, in one hundred and thirty five schools. Teachers in the cluster that will use English for learning will be required to be proficient in Eng lish. The teachers can be trained while others can be employed. Students will be taught all subjects in English and be required to speak in English in their social setting. The measurement of their performance will be obtained regularly at the end of each semester. The results will be compared with that of the cluster that used Kiswahili in their primary school. Oral and written tests will be administered to students in the two clusters after every four months. Follow up will be extended in secondary school where students who learnt using English in primary school will be compared against those who learnt in Kiswahili. All subjects will be taught in English by teachers with competent English skills. The teachers will be required to use English when talking to the students within and

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) - Essay Example There are many viewpoints on whether paper money should be completely eliminated. However, it would seem fair to suggest that paper money will still have a number of uses and it would be impractical to rely completely on electronic forms of money. This is because of the problems that are generally associated with information technology, such as power failures and database overloads, which could cause a break in the system and would therefore necessitate the use of paper money (Khilawala, 2011). It would be foolish to eradicate paper money completely whilst there is still a risk of these things happening. Paper money is also still popular with many. This is for a number of reasons. Firstly, if paper money were to be abolished, the government of that particular country would have to sell assets to ‘soak up the unwanted notes and coins’ (Rogoff, 2002, p2). It would mean a movement from the non-interest holding debt (cash) to interest holding debt (electronic money), which is an unappealing prospect for any government. The public also seem to have an insatiable demand for paper money, with the main reason for this popularity being the anonymity of cash. This is useful for those committing money-based crimes, but also appeals to the innocent as well for a number of different reasons. It has been suggested that when the government is able to identify the holders of cash using DNA techniques, electronic money may then become as popular as paper money (Rogoff, 2002). Conversely, this does mean that electronic money may be more useful for crime-detection. Despite this, there are a number of reasons why paper money is problematic. Governments may print off more paper money in anticipation of certain events as a way of controlling the economy (Jakobsson & Yung, 1996), but if this prediction is wrong then it may cause issues and as a

Reflective Journals on real ear measurment and prescription rules Essay

Reflective Journals on real ear measurment and prescription rules - Essay Example But patient response/opinion should also be in parallel with that of the audiologist in order to reach target. A cooperative patient will of course yield successful results whilst a patient in denial will not. A good fit is an important benefit to patients and that the use of REM recognizes the differences between coupler and real-ear measurements. In addition, patient benefit is greater when the target is well-matched. The baseline measure is useful when the patient will want to change aid later on. REM also shows the effects of fine tuning and provides graphical confirmation to the audiologist that the intended prescription/processing strategy have been implemented by the hearing aid software. Real ear measurement ensures the audiologist will be able to understand the whole process. REM is also helpful during counselling of patient and their family members about what they can and cannot hear. It will verify the function of advanced features like directional microphone and even nois e reduction features. Therefore, the audiologist should be adept about REM. During the lectures and readings, I also learned considerations for adults and children patients due to different approaches to real ear measurement. It was suggested that normal hearing in infants are uncertain (Ching et al, 2001). There are also acoustical differences between the ear canals of children and adults that affect the audiometric data as well as the hearing aid amplification. The audiologist should be aware of this when faced with a child or adult patient. To minimize or eliminate mistakes in prescribing amplification, the audiologist should base thresholds in sound pressure level at the tympanic membrane. Measurement errors are seen to be fewer for adults, especially those with average ear canal size and resonance. Children are also more restless during probe tube

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Future of Electronic Money ( case 1) - Essay Example There are many viewpoints on whether paper money should be completely eliminated. However, it would seem fair to suggest that paper money will still have a number of uses and it would be impractical to rely completely on electronic forms of money. This is because of the problems that are generally associated with information technology, such as power failures and database overloads, which could cause a break in the system and would therefore necessitate the use of paper money (Khilawala, 2011). It would be foolish to eradicate paper money completely whilst there is still a risk of these things happening. Paper money is also still popular with many. This is for a number of reasons. Firstly, if paper money were to be abolished, the government of that particular country would have to sell assets to ‘soak up the unwanted notes and coins’ (Rogoff, 2002, p2). It would mean a movement from the non-interest holding debt (cash) to interest holding debt (electronic money), which is an unappealing prospect for any government. The public also seem to have an insatiable demand for paper money, with the main reason for this popularity being the anonymity of cash. This is useful for those committing money-based crimes, but also appeals to the innocent as well for a number of different reasons. It has been suggested that when the government is able to identify the holders of cash using DNA techniques, electronic money may then become as popular as paper money (Rogoff, 2002). Conversely, this does mean that electronic money may be more useful for crime-detection. Despite this, there are a number of reasons why paper money is problematic. Governments may print off more paper money in anticipation of certain events as a way of controlling the economy (Jakobsson & Yung, 1996), but if this prediction is wrong then it may cause issues and as a

Sonnets of Shakespeare Essay Example for Free

Sonnets of Shakespeare Essay Shakespeares sonnets are a collection of 154 sonnets, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, first published in a 1609 quarto entitled SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS. : Never before imprinted. (although sonnets 138 and 144 had previously been published in the 1599 miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim). The quarto ends with A Lovers Complaint, a narrative poem of 47 seven-line stanzas written in rhyme royal. The first 17 poems, traditionally called the procreation sonnets, are addressed to a young man urging him to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the next generation. [1] Other sonnets express the speakers love for a young man; brood upon loneliness, death, and the transience of life; seem to criticise the young man for preferring a rival poet; express ambiguous feelings for the speakers mistress; and pun on the poets name. The final two sonnets are allegorical treatments of Greek epigrams referring to the little love-god Cupid. The publisher, Thomas Thorpe, entered the book in the Stationers Register on 20 May 1609: Tho. Thorpe. Entred for his copie under the handes of master Wilson and master Lownes Wardenes a booke called Shakespeares sonnettes vjd. Whether Thorpe used an authorised manuscript from Shakespeare or an unauthorised copy is unknown. George Eld printed the quarto, and the run was divided between the booksellers William Aspley and John Wright. - Structure [edit] The sonnets are almost all constructed from three four-line stanzas (called quatrains) and a final couplet composed in iambic pentameter. [18] This is also the meter used extensively in Shakespeares plays. The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. Sonnets using this scheme are known as Shakespearean sonnets. Often, the beginning of the third quatrain marks the volta (turn), or the line in which the mood of the poem shifts, and the poet expresses a revelation or epiphany. There are a few exceptions: Sonnets 99, 126, and 145. Number 99 has fifteen lines. Number 126 consists of six couplets, and two blank lines marked with italic brackets; 145 is in iambic tetrameters, not pentameters. There one another variation on the standard structure, found for example in sonnet 29. The normal rhyme scheme is changed by repeating the b of quatrain one in quatrain three, where the f should be. Characters [edit] When analysed as characters, the subjects of the sonnets are usually referred to as the Fair Youth, the Rival Poet, and the Dark Lady. The speaker expresses admiration for the Fair Youths beauty, and later has an affair with the Dark Lady. It is not known whether the poems and their characters are fiction or autobiographical; scholars who find the sonnets to be autobiographical, notably A. L. Rowse, have attempted to identify the characters with historical individuals. [19] Fair Youth [edit] Main article: Shakespeares sexuality. Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton at 21. Shakespeares patron, and one candidate for the Fair Youth of the sonnets. The Fair Youth is the unnamed young man to whom sonnets 1–126 are addressed. [20] Some commentators, noting the romantic and loving language used in this sequence of sonnets, have suggested a sexual relationship between them; others have read the relationship as platonic love. The earliest poems in the sequence recommend the benefits of marriage and children. With the famous sonnet 18 (Shall I compare thee to a summers day) the tone changes dramatically towards romantic intimacy. Sonnet 20 explicitly laments that the young man is not a woman. Most of the subsequent sonnets describe the ups and downs of the relationship, culminating with an affair between the poet and the Dark Lady. The relationship seems to end when the Fair Youth succumbs to the Ladys charms. [citation needed] There have been many attempts to identify the young man. Shakespeares one-time patron, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton is commonly suggested, although Shakespeares later patron, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, has recently become popular. [21] Both claims begin with the dedication of the sonnets to Mr. W. H., the only begetter of these ensuing sonnets; the initials could apply to either earl. However, while Shakespeares language often seems to imply that the subject is of higher social status than himself, the apparent references to the poets inferiority may simply be part of the rhetoric of romantic submission. [citation needed] An alternative theory, most famously espoused by Oscar Wildes short story The Portrait of Mr. W. H. notes a series of puns that may suggest the sonnets are written to a boy actor called William Hughes; however, Wildes story acknowledges that there is no evidence for such a persons existence. Samuel Butler believed that the friend was a seaman. Joseph Pequigney argued in his book Such Is My Love that the Fair Youth was an unknown commoner. The Dark Lady [edit] The Dark Lady redirects here. For other uses, see Dark Lady. The Dark Lady sequence (sonnets 127–152), distinguishes itself from the Fair Youth sequence by being overtly sexual in its passion. Among these, Sonnet 151 has been characterised as bawdy and is used to illustrate the difference between the spiritual love for the Fair Youth and the sexual love for the Dark Lady. [22] The distinction is commonly made in the introduction to modern editions of the sonnets. [22] The Dark Lady is so called because the poems make it clear that she has black hair and dusky skin. As with the Fair Youth, there have been many attempts to identify her with a real historical individual. Mary Fitton, Emilia Lanier and others have been suggested. The Rival Poet [edit] Main article: Rival Poet The Rival Poets identity has always remained a mystery; among the varied candidates are Christopher Marlowe, George Chapman, or, an amalgamation of several contemporaries. [23] However, there is no hard evidence that the character had a real-life counterpart. The speaker sees the Rival as competition for fame, coin and patronage. The sonnets most commonly identified as the Rival Poet group exist within the Fair Youth sequence in sonnets 78–86. [23] - Themes [edit] One interpretation is that Shakespeares sonnets are in part a pastiche or parody of the three-centuries-old tradition of Petrarchan love sonnets; Shakespeare consciously inverts conventional gender roles as delineated in Petrarchan sonnets to create a more complex and potentially troubling depiction of human love. [24] He also violated many sonnet rules, which had been strictly obeyed by his fellow poets: he plays with gender roles (20), he speaks on human evils that do not have to do with love (66), he comments on political events (124), he makes fun of love (128), he speaks openly about sex (129), he parodies beauty (130), and even introduces witty pornography (151). http://www. bardweb. net/poetry. html ontents * The Sonnets * Venus and Adonis * The Rape of Lucrece * Other Poetry In the summer of 1592, an episodic outbreak of the plague swept through London. Theatres were among the public gathering places to be shut down. William Shakespeare decided to stay in London rather than follow a theatrical company on tour. Shakespeare needed a way to earn a wage until the theatres reopened. He also desired to be taken seriously as a writer. Playwrights of the era were considered little more than populist hacks, writing largely disposable entertainment. Shakespeare instead found a way to earn both money and acclaim through the patronage of the third Earl of Southampton, Henry Wriothesley. Poetry was the art of nobles and gentlemen, and Shakespeare—a rustic interloper without the usual college-educated wit—lucratively introduced himself between1593 and 1594. Venus and Adonis would become Shakespeares most widely printed work during his lifetime. The following year, Shakespeare published The Rape of Lucrece. Both were poems calculated to bolster Shakespeares reputation and wallet. On the opposite end of that spectrum is the body of poetry that comprises Shakespeares more mysterious and controversial work. If Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece represent Shakespeares quest for immortality, his sonnets of the early 1590s represent the passion and introspection behind it. The Sonnets At some point in the early 1590s, Shakespeare began writing a compilation of sonnets. The first edition of these appeared in print in 1609. However, Frances Meres mentions Shakespeare sharing at least some of them among friends as early as 1598, and two (138 and 144) appear as early versions in the 1599 folio The Passionate Pilgrim. Shakespeares seeming ambivalence toward having the sonnets published stands in remarkable contrast to the poetic mastery they demonstrate. Why sonnets? The sonnet was arguably the most popular bound verse form in England when Shakespeare began writing. Imported from Italy (as the Petrarchan or Italian sonnet), the form took on a distinctive English style of three distinctively rhymed quatrains capped by a rhymed couplet comprising 14 total lines of verse. This allowed the author to build a rising pattern of complication in a three-act movement, followed by the terse denouement of the final two lines. Conventional subject matter of the Elizabethan sonnet concerned love, beauty, and faith. Shakespeare as a poet could hardly have ignored the sonnet as a verse form. He appears to have written a sequence of them, dedicated to a Master W. H. , and the sequence as a whole appears to follow a loose narrative structure. Of the 154 sonnets, there are three broad divisions: * Sonnets 1-126, which deal with a young, unnamed lord, the fair youth of the sonnets * Sonnets 127-152, which deal with the poets relationship to a mysterious mistress, the dark lady of the sonnets * Sonnets 153-154, which seem to be poetic exercises dedicated to Cupid The sonnets are poignant musings upon love, beauty, mortality, and the effects of time. They also defy many expected conventions of the traditional sonnet by addressing praises of beauty and worth to the fair youth, or by using the third quatrain as part of the resolution of the poem. The first edition of 1609 could very well have been an unauthorized printing. The dedication is enigmatic, and the sonnet by that time had waned in popularity. Whether or not Thorpe published the 1609 quarto with Shakespeares blessing, the sonnets as they are printed comprise the foundation for all later versions. Points of debate have ensued ever since as to: * The order of the arrangement * Whether or not the sonnets are autobiographical * Whether or not Shakespeare actually intended them to be published * The identities of W. H. , the fair youth, and the dark lady, among others * The exact nature of the poets relationship with those he addresses in the sonnets Venus and Adonis Shakespeare dedicates Venus and Adonis as the first heir of my invention. In doing so, Shakespeare acknowledges that even he considered his plays as literary works inferior to poetry. The poem, a brief epic, evokes comparisons to Marlowes Hero and Leander, to which Venus and Adonisowes at least some debt. Equal parts comic and erotic, the poem is Shakespeares take on a story told by Ovid in which Venus falls for the handsome youth Adonis. Shakespeare, however, makes one crucial twist to Ovids Metamorphoses. Ovids Venus is an irresistible, tragic goddess whose love Adonis returns. Venus and Adonis portrays the goddess as a comically frustrated seductress who cant seem to distract Adonis from his love of hunting. Shakespeare also includes elements from Metamorphoses from the tales of Narcissus and Hermaphroditus. Venus and Adonis is a microcosm of Shakespeares writing: taking a classical source and infusing it with both heightened formality and a playful humanity. Of course, the poems comic overtones and animal sensuality caused it to lapse into critical disfavor. The Rape of Lucrece The Rape of Lucrece was published the year after Venus and Adonis. Because of their proximity and Shakespeares dedication of both works to Southampton, the two poems are often thought of as companion pieces. In fact, its believed that Lucrece is the graver labour to which Shakespeare refers in the dedication of Venus and Adonis. Written in rhyme royale stanzas, The Rape of Lucrece also borrows from Ovid. While Shakespeare sticks fairly closely to the narrative of Ovid, in The Rape of Lucrece, he expands significantly on the action through the characterization of both Tarquin and Lucrece. Shakespeare creates as a result a tense drama with both moral and political overtones. The verses are thick with rhetorical flourishes and wordplay. Like its predecessor, The Rape of Lucrece sparked much critical debate over the years, mostly regarding how Lucreces language often works against her emotion. Other The 1599 volume The Passionate Pilgrim was a collection of twenty poems that the publisher attributed entirely to Shakespeare. Only five works can be traced to Shakespeare: versions of sonnets 138 and 144, and three poems presumably taken from a quarto edition of Loves Labours Lost. Thomas Heywood actually complained about a later reprinting of the work in which his poetry was published but still credited to Shakespeare. Heywood also noted that Shakespeare was unhappy with the publisher, William Jaggard, who presumed to make so bold with his name. It seems apparent that Jaggards printing was an unauthorized enterprise. A Lovers Complaint was printed with Thorpes 1609 edition of Shakespeares sonnets. Like The Rape of Lucrece, A Lovers Complaint is written in rhyme royale stanzas but is much shorter, at just over 300 lines. The poem tells the story of a woman seduced by a womanizing young man. In 1601, an untitled poem by Shakespeare appeared in a collection entitled Loves Martyr. Scholars have given it the title The Phoenix and the Turtlebased on the thematic subject of the collection. Based on computer-aided analysis, a 1612 poem published by Thomas Thorpe as A Funeral Elegy and signed W. S. was thought to be attributable to Shakespeare. Further study has pointed toward Jacobean dramatist John Ford, rather than Shakespeare, as the poems author. Sir John Falstaff is in financial difficulties. On top of that, Justice Shallow and his youthful cousin, Slender, have come to Windsor because he has conned them out of money. Falstaff decides to woo the wives of two of Windsor’s leading merchants, Page, and Ford, to get money out of them. He sends his page, Robin, to each of the wives with a letter. The wives compare the letters and find that they are identical. They decide to teach him a lesson and devise a plan. They invite him to Mistress Ford’s house at a time when Ford will be out bird shooting. Falstaff’scompanions, Pistol and Nym, tell Ford about Falstaff’s intentions and Ford, a naturally jealous man, resolves to catch his wife out. He disguises himself as a shy man, Master Brook, with a passion for Mistress Ford, and goes to Falstaff and offers him money to woo her on his behalf. Falstaff tells him that a meeting has already been arranged and agrees to Master Brook’s request. Slender has made friends with a local clergyman, Parson Evans. Slender has fallen for Page’s daughter, Anne, who is already secretly meeting a young courtier, Fenton, of whom Page disapproves. Anne’s mother, Mistress Page, is determined that she will marry the French doctor, Caius. When Caius hears  about Slender’s suit he challenges Parson Evans to a duel. The landlord of the Garter Inn confuses matters by setting different places for the duel, which results in the antagonists making up their differences. Falstaff arrives at Mistress Ford’s house but his wooing is interrupted by Mistress Page’s announcement that the men are returning. They hide Falstaff in a large laundry basket and he is carried out. Ford searches the house. Falstaff is tipped out on a muddy river bank. The wives, amused by the incident, decide to repeat the incident and invite Falstaff to come again. He is reluctant but Master Brook persuades hnbim to accept and his visit is again interrupted by Ford’s return. Ford searches the laundry basket but this time Falstaff is disguised as the elderly aunt of one of the servants. When Ford finds nothing in the laundry basket he loses his temper and angrily beats the ‘aunt’ out of the house. The wives laughingly tell their husbands about the trick and Page suggests that they should publicly humiliate Falstaff to stop him from preying on honest wives. Mistress Ford invites Falstaff to meet her at night in Windsor Park, disguised as Hearne the Hunter. Parson Evans organises Anne and some children to dress as fairies. Anne plans to elope with Fenton, while her parents are plotting her kidnapping by Caius and a secret marriage to him. They all meet in the park and Falstaff is pinched and taunted by the fairies. Anne escapes and returns as Fenton’s wife, while Cauius and Slender both find that they have eloped with boys. The play ends with the Pages giving their blessing to Anne’s marriage and everyone laughing at the evening’s antics and the humiliation of Falstaff. Henry-1 Henry Bolingbroke has usurped his cousin, Richard II, to become King of England. News comes of a rebellion in Wales, where his cousin, Edmund Mortimer, has been taken prisoner by Owen Glendower, and in the North, where Harry Hotspur, the young son of the Earl of Northumberland, is fighting the Earl of Douglas. The king’s problems mount up and he is forced to postpone his proposed participation in a crusade. Moreover, his heir, Henry, known as Hal, shows no interest in princely matters and spends all his time in the London taverns with disreputable companions, particularly one dissolute old knight, Sir John Falstaff. Falstaff will do anything to finance his eating and drinking. He carries out a robbery with two of hisfriends but Hal and Poins rob them in turn. Hal protects Falstaff from the law and returns the money to the victims. Although Hotspur has been forced to agree to support the king he joins a plot with his father and his uncle, Worcester, to support Glendower, Mortimer, and Douglas against the king. Hal returns to the court, makes his peace with his father, and is given a command in the army that is preparing to meet Hotspur. Falstaff has also been given a command but he has taken bribes and filled his ranks with beggars instead of recruiting able men. The King offers to pardon Hotspur if he will withdraw his opposition. Glendower’s troops and those of Northumberland have been unable to contact Hotspur and Worcester withholds the King’s offer from Hotspur and the battle of Shrewsbury begins. Falstaff’s conduct in the war is disreputable and behaves in a cowardly way, while Hal saves his father’s life in combat with the Scotsman, Douglas. He encounters Hotspur, who is killed. Falstaff, having feigned death to avoid injury, claims to have fought and killed Hotspur. The King’s army triumphs over the rebels and Worcester is condemned to death. Hal frees Douglas while Henry takes his troops to continue the war against Mortimer and the Welsh, and the remnants of the Northumberland forces. Henry-2 King Henry IV has been victorious at the battle of Shrewsbury but the Earl of Northumberland hears rumours that his son, Harry Hotspur, has been the victor. Northumberland and the Archbishop of York decide to oppose the king’s forces, led by Prince John. The news of Hotspur’s death finally comes, however, and Hotspur’s widow and Lady Northumberland urge them not to continue with their rebellion. The Lord Chief Justice criticises Sir John Falstaff for his behaviour during the wars but gives his blessing to him in his intention to join Prince John’s forces. Before Falstaff can leave he is arrested for his debt to Mistress Quickly, the landlady of the Boar’s Head tavern. They both land up in court where Falsaff persuades her to patch up their differences. Prince Hal and his friend Poins, arrive at the tavern, disguised as servants. Acquaintances between Hal and Falstaff and his companionsare renewed. Pistol arrives and tells Falstaff that he should have departed for the wars by now. Hal and his friends remain, still dressed as servants, although the king is sick, and worried about the succession. Falstaff recruits men, conforming to his usual corrupt methods. York, Mowbray and Hastings prepare for battle. The Earl of Westmorland arrives from Prince John to hear their grievances and they come to a peace arrangement. However, as soon as the rebel armies disperse, Westmorland arrests the three leaders for treason. The king is very ill. Hall arrives from London. He thinks the sleeping king is dead and he lifts the crown and tries it on. The king wakes up and is angered by that. They make up and are reconciled before the king prepares himself for death. When Falstaff hears of the king’s death and Hal’s succession he sets out to attend the coronation, expecting to be given high office, but the king denies knowing him and banishes him, commanding him to come no nearer than ten miles of his court. The play ends with Falstaff left hurt and hoping that the king will change his mind, while the King Henry plans a war against France. Henry-5 Henry V’s father Bolingbroke (Henry IV) was never able to rule comfortably because he had usurped Richard II. On his succession King Henry V is determined to prove his right to rule, including over France. An ambassador arrives from the French Dauphin with a provocative gift of tennis balls. Henry responds by preparing to invade France. Three of the king’s friends, Scroop, Cambridge and Grey, are discovered to be plotting against him and he condemns them to death. Pistol, Nym, and Bardolph, the companions of Henry’s dissolute days in London, join the king’s forces and set off for the wars. The news comes of Sir John Falstaff’s death. The English take the town of Harfleur and the king moves on towards Calais. The two armies prepare for battle near Agincourt. The night before the battle the king visits his troops in disguise. The French numbers are superior but Henry inspires his troops with a powerful patriotic speech. The battle begins and the French are defeated, with heavy losses, whereas the English losses are light. Henry returns to London in triumph before making peace with the French king. Henry woos the French Princess Katherine and their marriage links England and France. HEney-6-The play opens in the aftermath of the death of King Henry V. News reaches England of military setbacks in France, and the scene shifts to  Orleans, where ‘La Pucelle’ (Joan of Arc) is encouraging theDauphin to resist. She defeats an English army led by Talbot. In England, Richard, Duke of York, quarrels with John Beaufort, 1 st Duke of Somerset about his claim on the throne. The lords select red or white roses, depending on whether they favour the House of Lancaster or that of York. Edmund Mortimer, a leading claimant to the throne, is a prisoner in the Tower ofLondon and declares Richard his heir. The young Henry VI honours both Richard and Talbot. Talbot dies bravely in his next battle against the French. In the meantime, King Henry is married off to a young French princess, Margaret of Anjou. Suffolk intends to control the king through Margaret. Ill feeling between him and the Duke of Gloucester continues to grow. This play ends without a resolution, and is Henry-6-21This play begins with the marriage of King Henry VI to the young Margaret of Anjou. William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk, aims to influence the king through her. The major obstacle to this plan is the regent of the crown, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who is very popular with the people. Queen Margaret vies with his wife, Eleanor, for precedence at court. Eleanor is lured by an agent of Suffolk into dabbling in necromancy, and then arrested, to the embarrassment of her husband,Gloucester. Nevertheless, the demon she has summoned delivers some accurate prophecies concerning the fates of several characters in the play. Gloucester is then accused of treason and imprisoned, and afterwards assassinated by agentsof Suffolk and the Queen. Meanwhile, Richard, Duke of York, who has a tenuousclaim to the throne, schemes to make himself king. The Earl of Suffolk is banished for his role in Gloucester’s death and killed by Walter the pirate, leaving Margaret without her mentor. Meanwhile, Richard of York has managed to become commander of an army to suppress a revolt in Ireland. York enlists a former officer, Jack Cade, to lead a rebellion that threatens the whole kingdom, so that he can bring his army from Ireland into England and seize the throne. As Cade’s rebels are routed, York, who has brought his army over on the pretext of protecting the King from Somerset, declares open war on the king, supported by his sons, Edward (the future King Edward IV) and Richard (the future King Richard II). The English nobility now take sides, and the Battle of St Albans ensues. The Duke of Somerset is killed by the future Richard III. Young Lord Clifford, whose father has been killed by the Duke of York, vows revenge on the Yorkists, and allies himself with King Henry’s other supporters. Henry-6-3 The Earl of Warwick (Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick) is presiding over a dispute between Richard, Duke of York and the reigning King Henry, in the course of which Henry agrees to make York his heir. The Queen, Margaret, makes it clear that she will not agree to this, and declares war on the Yorkists, with the assistance of the young Lord Clifford and other supporters, including her son, Edward, Prince of Wales. The Yorkists are defeated at the Battle of Wakefield. Cliffordmurders York’s young son, the Earl of Rutland. Margaret andClifford taunt the duke of York before killing him. The Earl of Warwick now takes York’s eldest son, Edward (King Edward 1V of England) under his wing. At the Battle of Twoton, they take revenge on Margaret’s army, and Clifford is killed. Following the battle, Edward is proclaimed king, and his two brothers, George and Richard, are created Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester respectively. Warwick turns against Edward when he marries Lady Grey, and he changes sides, joining Queen Margaret and allowing his daughter to marry her son, the Prince of Wales. The Duke of Clarence goes over to Warwick, marrying his other daughter, and Edward IV is taken prisoner. He is rescued by his brother Richard and the faithful Lord Hastings. King Henry VI has been restored to the throne, and the young Earl of Richmond (the future King Henry V11) goes into exile in France to escape the Yorkists. Edward defeats and kills Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. In a subsequent battle, he kills the Prince of Wales and captures Queen Margaret. Richard of Gloucester begins his campaign to remove all obstacles in his path to the throne by murdering King Henry VI who is a captive in the Tower of London. Henry prophesies Richard’s career of villainy and his future notoriety. However, King Edward’s wife has just given birth to a son, the future King, Edward V of England, and the play ends here. Cardinal Wolsey, a close advisor to Henry VIII’s father, Henry VII, has framed the Duke of Buckingham for treason, who is executed. The Queen, Katherine, hates Wolsey and he is also hated by the people because of the plot against Buckingham and the harsh, unfair taxes he is imposing in the King’s name. The King goes to a party hosted by Wolsely and falls in love with Anne Bullen, a lady-in-waiting to the Queen. Henry, married to Katherine for twenty years, decides that the marriage is not legal because she is the widow of his brother, and it is therefore incest. He asks Wolsey for his advice. Because of that Wolsey becomes even more hated, both by Katherine and the people so he can’t agree to Henry’s solution of a divorce, but he agrees to put it the Pope, who will send someone to investigate and make a ruling. Katherine regards the marriage as sacred but she has to submit to the proceedings. Wolsey’s enemies are active and, the situation compounded by some bad luck, he begins to lose the confidence of Henry. Also, Henry sees him as a stumbling block to the divorce. Wolsey knows that Henry is determined to marry Anne Bullen so he advises the Pope to postpone a decision. With Wolsey in disgrace Henry goes ahead with the divorce and the remarriage with out any regard to the Pope’s opinion. Wolsey then dies, followed soon after by Katherine. The new Archbishop of Canterbury has a plot hatched against him by Wolsey’s secretary, Gardiner, who is tried and executed for treason. Henry has a daughter, Elizabeth, by Anne Bullen. Cranmer christens her and makes a speech foretelling a noble rule for Elizabeth and a glorious period of history during her reign. King John settlement with the French King. John is, in the meantime, having a problem with the Pope. The Pope has excommunicated him, and his envoy, Pandulph, orders the French King to resume hostilities with John. During one of the battles John captures his nephew, Arthur. He gives orders for his execution but his chamberlain, Hubert, disobeys the order. While trying to escape, Arthur falls to his death. The nobles accuse John of murder and defect to the French side. John is forced to hand over his crown to Pandulph, although receives it back, but his kingdom is now under the Pope’s control. Pandulph now tries to stop the conflict but the French won’t co-operate and the armies meet at Edmundsbury. The nobles don’t trust the French King and they return to John. The French King comes to terms with John through Pandulph but John is not there to see that as he is poisoned by a monk while he is staying at Swinstead Abbey. He is succeeded by his son, King Henry III. Richard-3 Richard, the Yorkist Duke of Gloucester, has not stopped plotting since the defeat of Henry VI. He conspires to play his brothers, Edward (now King Edward IV) and George, Duke of Clarence, against each other in an attempt to gain the crown for himself. By insinuating charges of treason against George, Richard has him arrested. He also brazenly woos Anne, widow of the murdered Prince of Wales, in the midst of her husbands funeral procession. In the course of events, Edward IV, who is deathly ill at the beginning of the play, dies; Richard has already arranged for George to be murdered while imprisoned, and so it stands that Richard will serve as regent while Edwards son (also named Edward) can come of age. In order to protect the Prince of Wales and his younger brother, Richard has them stay in the Tower of London. He then moves against Edwards loyalist lords; Vaughan, Rivers, Hastings, and Grey are first imprisoned, then executed. Then, with the aid of Buckingham, Richard declares that Edward IVs offspring are technically illegitimate. In an arranged public display, Buckingham offers the throne of England to Richard, who is presumably reluctant to accept. By this time, Richard has alienated even his own mother, who curses him as a bloody tyrant. By now, Richard needs to bolster his claims to the crown; the young princes locked away in the Tower of London must be disposed of. Buckingham, until now Richards staunchest ally, balks at this deed. Richard gets a murderer to do the deed, but turns on Buckingham for his insubordination. Now Richard—conveniently a widower after the suspicious demise of Anne—makes a ploy to marry the late King Edwards daughter, his niece. Elizabeth, Edwards widow, makes Richard believe that she agrees to the match; however, Elizabeth has arranged for a match with the Earl of Richmond. Richmond, at this point in the action, is bringing over an army from France to war against Richard. Buckingham, finding himself out of favor with the king, gives his allegiance to Richmond. However, Buckingham is captured when his army is thrown into disarray by floods, and Richard has him executed immediately. Richmond, who has undergone his own troubles crossing the English Channel, finally lands his army and marches for London. The armies of Richard and Richmond encamp near Bosworth Field; the night before the battle, Richard is visited by the sundry ghosts of the people he has slain, all of whom foretell his doom.